Middle and Late Childhood (School Age)

Introduction

This lecture will cover physical, cognitive, socioemotional, and moral development during the school-age years. Key factors in elementary education will also be discussed. 

Physical Development

During the middle and late childhood, children grow about 2-3 inches per year on average, and gain about 5-7 pounds. Girls are usually bit taller than boys between the ages of 2 and 9, at which point, boys catch up (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). The rate of a child’s physical growth varies based on genetics, nationality, ethnicity, SES (socioeconomic status), and nutrition (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). Brain volume is stabilizing during these years, but the regions in the brain are still undergoing changes. The prefrontal cortex continues to form, and the crebral cortex thickens, allowing for more efficient language development (Santrock, 2008). Mylination continues in the frontal and temporal lobes, and the numbers (zerotothree.org, 2009). Accidents are still the leading cause of death for children in the school-age years, followed by cancer, particularly leukemia, and homicide (Kaneshiro & Zieve, 2008).

Cognitive Development

According to Piaget, children in middle and late childhood are in the concrete operational stage. In this stage, children are capable of conservation of all things. They are also able to understand reversibility, the notion that one can undo a given operation either mentally or physically (Miller, 2002). In addition, children are able to organize information into complex organization systems because centration is not present anymore (Miller, 2002). Although they are still not capable of formal logic, concrete operational children understand relations. If a child understands that Paul weighs more than Bill, and Bill weighs more than Peter, than they can understand that Paul weighs more than Peter (Miller, 2002). Children in middle and late childhood show greater attention spans, and they now pay attention to more relevant stimuli, rather than simply what is salient (Santrock, 2008).

When learning to read, there appears to be a strong environmental effect on literacy.  Snow (1993) found that when adults use infrequent words in everyday conversations with children, children’s vocabulary is increased. Further, parents who frequently read stories and instruct their children in the names and sounds of reading have children who are better able to read at 4-years-old (Crain-Thoreson & Dale, 1992). There are two major approaches to teaching children to read. The whole-language approach is considered a “top-down” approach, which mimics the way children speak. The idea behind whole language is for children to make meaning by speaking, listening, and writing (Reyhner, 2008).  Phonics, on the other hand, is a bottom-up approach, utilizing sounds to decipher words. Children reading with phonics “sound out” words using the basic rules of language (Reyhner, 2008).

Intelligence

IQ, or Intelligence Quotiant, has long been the preferred method of measuring intelligence (Hetherington & Parke, 1999).  It relies on the notion that there are certain cognitive levels that are normal for each chronological age. When a person is tested, the formula for measuring IQ is MA (Mental Age)/CA (Chronological Age) X 100.  If a person’s mental age (what they are cognitively capable of doing) exceeds their chronological age, their IQ will be over 100. If their chronological age exceeds their mental age, their IQ will be under 100, and if they are the same, they will score exactly 100 (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). Scores over 130 indicate that the child is gifted, whereas scores below 70 indicate mental retardation (Comer, 2007; Santrock, 2008).  The two most common measures of IQ are the Stanfort-Binet, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scales. The Stanford-Binet was originally developed in order to classify children for special schools (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). The Wechsler scales offer an advantage over the Stanford-Binet in that they can be administered non-verbally.  Traditional intelligence tests usually focus on abilities such as spatial reasoning, verbal ability, problem solving, and memory (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). IQ tends to remain stable throughout a person’s life, even though grades may decline or cognitive skills may increase (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). 

Newer theories of intelligence espouse the idea that there are many areas in which one could be intelligent, besides those measured on traditional IQ tests. One theory, Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of intelligence, is based on the information processing approach, and splits intelligence into three categories: Componential/Analytical, which is the ability to acquire, store, and process information, Experiential/Creative, or the ability to use insight and creativity to respond to novel demands, and Cotextual/Practical, sometimes called tacit knowledge, is the ability to effectively adapt to practical or cultural demands (Hetherington & Parke, 1999; Miller, 2002). Building off of this idea, Howard Gardener put forth another theory of multiple intelligence. Gardner’s theory splits intelligence into eight different categories, asserting that most people have intelligence in one area, and some people show ability in multiple areas (Gardner, 1983; Santrock, 2008).  The areas are: linguistic-verbal, logical-mathematical, spatial (rotating blocks, navigation), kinesthetic/bodily (dancers, athletes), self-reflective/intrapersonal, interpersonal, musical, and naturalistic (notice patterns in nature) (Gardner, 1983; Santrock, 2008). 

When looking at intelligence, it is important to consider how culture-fair a test is.  On traditional IQ tests, African-American and Latino individuals tend to score worse than white Americans, and Asian-Americans tend to score highest (Hetherington & Parke, 1999; Santrock, 2008). However, it is more important to look at socioeconomic status and effort, rather than ethnicity per se (Hetherington & Parke, 1999).  It is important to remember that when looking at intelligence, what may be considered intelligent in one culture may not be considered intelligent in another (Miller, 2002). Culture-fair tests should have items that are familiar to all test takers (e.g. not use culture specific slang or knowledge), and may be nonverbal (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). Some test takers may be thrown by stereotype threat, where the knowledge of a negative stereotype about your group may cause you to perform more poorly in evaluation situations (Santrock, 2007).

Moral Development

As he/she makes cognitive gains, he/she is also gaining in terms of their moral development.  Lawrence Kohlberg outlined a theory of moral development based in part on Piaget’s cognitive theory.  Kohlberg used a series of dilemmas, his most famous being the Heinz dilemma, in order to test children’s moral reasoning (Hetherington & Parke, 1999).  Based on these interviews, Kohlberg conceptualized a series of stages of moral reasoning.  The preconventional moral stage, consisting of two substages: obedience and punishment and naïve hedonistic, involves an orientation where obtaining rewards and avoiding punishments is key. The conventional moral stage, consisting of the “good boy” morality and the authority and morality to maintain social order substages, focuses on internal moral standards that are dictated by external forces (society, parents). Finally, the post-conventional moral stage, consisting of the morality of contract and morality of individual principles substages, is an orientation where people conform to moral standards of external forces, but these are flexible, and can be changed when personal morality warrants it (Kohlberg, 1963). The preconventional level is most common in childhood, while the conventional level becomes more common in late childhood/early adolescence (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). Particularly in early childhood, moral reasoning and moral behavior may be unrelated, as children’s behavior is often not precipitated by rational thought (Hetherington & Parke, 1999). However, individuals who reason at higher levels tend to engage in fewer antisocial acts than those who reason at lower levels (Hetherington & Parke, 1999).

Socioemotional Development of School-Age Children

Parents need to recognize that their elementary child’s world is expanding; peers are becoming more important, and children may spend more time with adults outside the family, such as a Little League coach. Parents also need to begin letting go by allowing the child to assume more responsibility for himself or herself. For example, the child typically can do some household chores, assume responsibility for pet care, and clean his or her room (Harris, 1986). Parents also need to help their child learn and maintain values by explaining the rationale behind them, achieve a positive self-concept (a cognitive listing of strengths and weaknesses), and develop self-esteem (an emotional evaluation of one’s strengths and weaknesses) (Steinberg, 2005).

Elementary-aged children may be impacted negatively by their parents’ divorce.  Research suggests that children of divorce may score lower on a variety of measures, including academic achievement, conduct, self-concept, and social relationships, but these effect sizes are modest, and may be mediated by the quality of parenting following the divorce (Amato, 2001). Another major disruption is death; this age group often witnesses the death of either a grandparent or a pet. When children witness a traumatic event, it is important for parents to aid the child in coping by reassuring children that they are safe, listening to them, limiting reminders of the trauma, and helping them not to blame themselves (Santrock, 2008). Coping with stress can be divided into two major categories: problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. Problem focused coping involves attempts to change the nature of the stressful situation (e.g. studying for a test), while emotion focused coping involves attempts to distract oneself from the situation (e.g. watching a funny movie) (Lazarus, 1993).  Research suggests that emotion-focused coping is linked with poorer adjustment in children and adolescents (Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Harding & Wadsworth, 2001).

Emotionally, children at this age are refining their self-understanding.  While children aged 4-6 conceive of only one emotion at a time, children 6-8 years old begin to understand that they can experience more than one emotion at once (e.g. happiness and pride). By the time they are 8-9 years old, children understand and can describe two distinct emotions that occur in response to different situations at the same time (e.g. I was happy because I got the candy I wanted, but mad because my mom punished me for taking it) (Harter & Buddin, 1987 as cited in Hetherington & Parke, 1999).  Peers serve as socializing agents and as a source of social comparison (Santrock, 2008). By 5th or 6th grade, groups are starting to become exclusive and cliquish.

Santrock (2007; 2008) discusses five types of peer status: popular children are those who are often liked and rarely disliked, average children are those that are sometimes liked, sometimes disliked, neglected children are those that are rarely liked, and rarely disliked, rejected children are those who are often disliked and rarely liked, and controversial children are those that are often liked and often disliked. Harris (1986) believes that the rejected type is the most likely candidate for both being bullied and becoming a bully. According to Sullivan, this period of life is marked by increased intimacy in friendships (Burger, 1997). Girls are more likely than boys to report having a best friend.  According to Crick and Dodge (1994), aggressive children tend to pick up fewer social cues before making a decision, attend to aggressive cues in more situations, infer aggressive motives in others, and perceive hostile responses more positively. According to Erikson, during the school age years children enter the psychosocial stage of industry vs. inferiority. As children enter school, they are exposed to more of the world through learning (e.g. books, maps, films) (Miller, 2002). This learning, however, extends beyond school as well.  It is important at this stage to develop a sense of competency or mastery (industry), or risk feeling inadequate and inferior (Miller, 2002). Children strive to figure out how things work, and they ask questions (Santrock, 2008).

Schools

Schools are also an important agent of socialization, second only to the family in terms of importance (Harris, 1986). Harris has identified nine variables as important to either contributing to or detracting from school success:

1.      Sensory impairments (such as vision and hearing problems),

2.      Learning disabilities, such as dyslexia (a perceptual problem) and attention-deficit disorder (which can occur with or without hyperactivity), 

3.      Socioeconomic status (SES or social class): studies show that low SES is correlated with school problems and dropout rates),

4.      Teacher’s expectations (of either success or failure) induce a self-fulfilling prophecy for many students,

5.      Sex differences (with teachers preferring feminine stereotypes),

6.      Parental involvement: involved parents have more successful students,

7.      Motivation: studies show that intrinsic motivation is linked with a high achievement motivation,

8.      Anxiety: studies show that a moderate level of anxiety is correlated with high performance, and

9.      Prejudice, a learned attitude that is reduced in integrated classrooms.

In terms of how to teach children, there are two major types employed in schools today: constructivist and direct-instruction. Constructivist approaches are learner-centered, and rely on children as actively involved in their own learning; “constructing” meaning through their interactions. Teaching in the constructivist approach means acting more like a guide (Atherton, 2009). The direct-instruction approach, in contrast, is more teacher-centered, and relies on the principles of behaviorism and curriculum delivery (Reyhner, 2008).

In 2001, President Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind act. This act was set forth in order to close the achievement gap between the U.S. and other industrialized nations (particularly in math and reading), and to hold schools accountable for all children, rather than just for averages (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).  Under the law, schools need to make adequate yearly progress, meaning they are bringing students from many different categories (e.g. ethnicity, gender, SES) up to proficiency, with the goal of having all children be proficient or above grade level by 2014 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Schools not making AYP may have negative sanctions imposed such as the loss of funding or the loss of autonomy, teachers whose students are not making AYP may not be promoted, and in some cases, may be replaced, and students not making AYP may be held back or not graduated (U.S Department of Education, 2004).  There is much controversy surrounding this act with proponents stating that this will increase accountability in the classroom and lead to more proficient students, and detractors stating that the program is underfunded, lacks specific and attainable standards, and that taking funding from schools and labeling them “failures” does not give teachers, students, and schools the needed resources to be successful (American Federation of Teachers, 2008).

Conclusion

In this lecture, the stages of elementary-age children were reviewed. In the next lecture, the focus will first be on the physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development in adolescence.

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