Psychopathology – Mid Term Test

1. Explain the inadequacies of the various historical perspectives on psychopathology, and explain why the concept of a multidimensional integrative approach to psychopathology appears to be the most logical choice to understanding mental disorders.

Different perspectives such as social influences and their impact on mental illness have some limitations. The perspective assumes that mental problems originate from exposure to a certain type of environment (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Therefore, it argues that exposing people to a certain environment helps cure this problem. Another perspective relies on biological influences that say that physiological characteristics of individuals cause mental illness (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The approach assumes that through treating some visible condition on a person, mental illness is resolved. However, despite earlier treatment of visible physiological problems the problem of mental illness was evident in the society. Cognitive and emotional influences are the other perspectives that assume that emotional instability is the real cause of mental problem (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). However, steps to influence cognitive ability of mental problems only solved the problem in some people but did not work in others. Behavioral perspective on the other hand, suggests that taming the behavior of individuals solves mental problems (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The perspective is misleading because despite some people portraying positive behavior they portray different characteristics of mental illness. 

The solution to the problem evident from the different perspectives is through adoption of a multidimensional perspective. The perspective is effective in psychopathology because it identifies those mental problems are a byproduct of different causal factors (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The approach allows medical practitioners to classify threshold of each causative factor of the mental illness. Therefore, it becomes easier to respond to the problem from a variety of dimensions that constitutes all the earlier perspectives. The impact is development of synergy as the perspectives complement each other in providing a solution to the illness (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The approach is further able to classify the characteristics of the disorder through dimensions such as physical, cognitive, behavioral and emotional. The perspective allows medics to analyze the persistence and intense of any of these dimension to establish a reliable response to the disorder. The resultant is relative specificity of the care therapy or treatment that such patients receive, boosting their heal wellbeing. 

2. What are some of the main strengths and limitations of using an a theoretical, categorical approach as found in the DSM-5? 

The use of categorical and theatrical approach available in DSM helps medical practitioners to have uniform guide on treatment of different mental disorders. The approach provides descriptions of different mental ailment and their manifestation in human beings (Clark et.al. 2017). Therefore, when patients go to health facilities, the medics are able to identify the problem with relatively high precision. Further, the approach provides mental disorder diagnosing criteria. Therefore, it becomes possible for healthcare professionals to offer accurate diagnosis for mental illness. Indeed, it forms a base for decision on the type of perspective the medics use in treating their patients. Another benefits that DSM approach offers is provision of unique languages that is similar to all clinicians across the world(Clark et.al. 2017). The clinicians are thus able to share their experiences with patients and appropriate diagnosis based on their condition. The common language is also useful in ensuring that medical researchers are able to carry various researches on mental problems in their society and share such information across the world. 

However, DSM has some limitations such as inaccurate mental disorder diagnoses representations for specific problems (Clark et.al. 2017). There is potential of clinicians overlooking DSM though it has some disclaimer that asks medics not to rely on the manual as sole source of treatment decision. Moreover, DSM lacks adequate scientific reliability and validity [that is necessary it inform various mental problems (Clark et.al. 2017). Actually, the diagnoses found in DSM are not a reliable reflection of brain diseases though they inform medics in treating such problems. Therefore, strict use of DSM as source of information for mental treatment can cause medical errors on patients. Such patients may suffer from complications and eventually fail to recover from their mental illness. 

3. Two of the most common – and most troubling – of the personality disorders are antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder.  Compare and contrast these disorders.  Be sure to cover the primary symptoms, predominant causal theories, and the possibility of gender bias in the diagnosis of these disorders.  Last, suggest an effective course of treatment.

Borderline personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder have a number of similarities such as lack of empathy for others (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Individuals suffering from these disorders rarely care about feelings of others. Indeed, the persons are concerned about fulfillment of their personal goals irrespective of their effect on others. Further, persons with these disorders get angry relatively fast and results to fight when angered. The self-centeredness makes the individual have low regard of the impact of any of their activities on others. Additionally the individuals portray higher rates of suicidal activities when upset and unable to fulfill their goals (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Disinhibiting is also common in antisocial and borderline personality disorder victims through engagement in impulsive behavior. 

However, despite the similarities, the victims of these disorders have differences in the manner they portray negative emotions. Antisocial victims are likely to harm others when disappointed while borderline individuals probably harm themselves (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Further, while antisocial personality displays in individuals after age of 18, borderline personality is evident at any age (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The causal theory of antisocial behavior is inherent genes and incidences of early abuse in life for the victims (Maddux & Winstead, 2015).  Therefore, individual who grow under the care of abuse parents or drug users are likely to develop antisocial characteristics. In contrast, borderline personality originates from exposure to chronic distress or fear (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Further, the condition arises from neglecting of children by their parents at their early ages. Gender bias also exists in diagnosing the disorders where antisocial personality relates more to men (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). However, borderline disorder is evident in both women and men. 

Treatment of both borderline and antisocial personality disorder is relatively successful through use of psychotherapy approach (Dixon-Gordon et.al. 2015). Psychotherapy involves medical practitioners especially psychologists engaging in talks with the victims (Dixon-Gordon et.al. 2015). The session focuses on helping the victims handle their current situation and manage their emotions. Additionally, psychotherapy helps patients to handle their impulsiveness through observing their feeling and avoiding reacting to them (Dixon-Gordon et.al. 2015). Further, it helps patient to know ways to work on their relationships with others through understanding other people feelings. However, patient that portray aggrieve behavior they require to take certain medicines. 

4. What lifestyle and behavioral variables correlate with a greater chance of suicide attempts and completion?

Individuals who strive to live beyond their ability have higher chances of committing suicide. The persons feel discouraged when they are unable to meet their optimistic goals in life and probably suffer from stress (Franklin et.al. 2016). The problem is majorly evident on individuals who are antisocial as they struggle to prove to others that they can achieve greater things in life. Further, hopeless from inability to meet basic needs in life contributes to higher chances of suicidal thoughts (Franklin et.al. 2016). The incidence is prevalent in the sections of the population where poverty levels are relatively high. The individuals develop some feeling of unworthiness and this drags them to thoughts about committing suicide. The situation is more evident on individuals who suffer from borderline personality disorder who are likely to cause self-harm if they do not meet their needs. Another variable that influences the behavior is indulging in drug abuse, which limits the capacity to make responsible decisions (Franklin et.al. 2016). When under drug influence, individual may suffer from setting unrealistic goals and when they fail to meet them, they suffer under stress. Further, drug abuse impairs thinking of individuals and they may opt to carry self-harm without consideration of consequences of such actions. 

Additionally, individuals who feel they are facing burdens in life are at higher risk of suicidal thoughts (Franklin et.al. 2016). The situation arises when an individual perceives the demands of life being beyond their capability. Some of these events take place where parents are unable to support their children and they are not ready to witness their suffering. Further, young people who feel burdened by society and parents to perform in their schools and fail to achieve these expectations feel discouraged and may opt to suicide. Poor social supports in the community for persons who are suffering from stress also influence them to commit suicide (Franklin et.al. 2016). When people seem to ignore the suffering of an individual, such person feel they are unworthy and nobody appreciates their presence.  

5. What is the defining difference between making a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder versus Bipolar Disorder? What variables are associated with a better treatment outcome? A poorer treatment outcome?

Some of the major differences in diagnosing Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder is the manner they display on patients. Individuals with bipolar disorder have varying feeling of energetic moments, which then falls at other times (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Indeed, it is possible to see such individuals switching between extreme happiness to sad moods within a short duration. The mood swing in these patients is relatively high and the changes mostly do not relate to any life events. Therefore, it becomes relatively hard to associate any factor with these changes in mood and character of the patient. In contrast, Major Depressive Disorder manifests in individuals through continuous feelings of despair and sadness (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The patients further suffer from poor sleeping patterns and their appetite is negatively affected. Therefore, the victims report missing most of the meal and do feel hungry. The patients further report extreme incidences of fatigue that interfere with their ability to carry their daily responsibilities. Such individuals find everything in life being uninteresting and they do not value anything that goes on around them. 

Variables that shows positive treatment outcome include ability of individuals to live a normal life after medication (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). If the number of patients able to carry out normal life activities increases, the outcome is positive. Further, ability to change the sudden mood swings in patients also indicates positive outcomes. Additionally, low readmission levels in hospitals also indicate positive treatment outcomes. The other variable is the number of referrals from past patients to health facilities (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). When many mental suffering people get referrals by their friends to a hospital, it is an indication of positive treatment. However, there are different variables that show poor outcome of treatment such as rising number of suicide cases after visiting the health facility (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The situation shows that the psychotherapy given to such individuals is not adequate. Additionally, slow response to medication also portrays poor treatment. 

6. Discuss the gender differences found in personality disorders. Give specific examples of disorders where gender differences occur. Do the disparities indicate differences between men and women in certain basic experiences that are genetic, sociocultural, or both, or do they represent biases on the part of the clinicians who make the diagnoses?

Personality disorders manifest themselves differently between women and men in the society especially concerning their anxiety. Women portray anxious behavior and are likely to suffer from depression in comparison to men (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Women internalize emotions and this builds some negative feelings as they interact with other people. The situation results to the victims showing symptoms of withdraw where they like to stay alone. Indeed, they do not want to associate with people or share their problems.  Further, women show loneliness when they are suffering from personality disorder (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The incidence denies them happiness and they avoid places meant to cheer people up such as social gatherings. In contrast, men suffering from personality disorder show external emotions where they mostly engage in drug abuse (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). The situation further influences them to externalize their emotions through non-compliant behaviors. Actually, such men are aggressive and mostly engage in fights with their friends (Maddux & Winstead, 2015). Further, they are likely to engage in domestic fights where they abuse their partners and children. The resultant is breakdown of family units where they want to exercise their authority by force. Moreover, men show impulsive behavior where they show little care to other people as they strive to preserve their ego. 

The diagnostic variability is not a bias by clinicians but is significant influence from sociocultural and genetic factors (Reichborn-Kjennerud, 2010). Culturally, women have the responsibility if taking care of children and influence the progress of their homes. Therefore, when they face stressful situations they repeatedly think how to get a solution and this result to depression. Women also have a stronger attachment to their children and are uncomfortable whenever they are unable to give them best life. The society also places relatively higher moral stands to women to be submissive than men.  On the other hand, society expects to offer security and provide for their family.  Therefore, when faced with challenges they opt to be coercive to stamp their authority as heads in their homes. Genetically, women are weaker physically and cannot engage in physical fights as men and therefore choose to withdraw when faced with challenges in life (Reichborn-Kjennerud, 2010). 

References

Clark, L. A., Cuthbert, B., Lewis-Fernández, R. et.al. (2017). Three Approaches to Understanding and Classifying Mental Disorder: ICD-11, DSM-5, and the National Institute of Mental Health’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC). Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(2), 72-145. 

Dixon-Gordon, K. L., Whalen, D. J. Layden, B. K. et.al. (2015). A Systematic Review of Personality Disorders and Health Outcomes. Canadian Psychology, 56(2), 168-190.

Franklin, J. C., Ribeiro, J. D., Fox, K. R. et.al. (2016). Risk Factors for Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis of 50 Years of Research. Psychological Bulletin, 143(2), 187-232. 

Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (2015). Psychopathology : Foundations For A Contemporary Understanding. New York: Routledge. 

Reichborn-Kjennerud, T. (2010). The Genetic Epidemiology Of Personality Disorders. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 12(1), 103-114.