Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning proposes that learning is a process that happens in a string of events. Pavlov showed that the process starts from a position where there is not even a single speck of knowledge to the position where there is an instrumental level of knowledge acquired after a learning process. The process starts at the very first step where new knowledge, ideas, behaviors, and attitudes are acquired through unconscious and conscious ways. It is an unconscious learning process, and it is one of the easiest ways where human beings can gain new knowledge. The process can be merely summed in four conceptual steps which are acquisition, extinction and recovery, generalization and discrimination and lastly, higher level conditioning. Using the real-life example of a child who is learning how to speak, this paper will explore the various steps of classical conditioning. 

Acquisition

Acquisition is the very first stage in classical conditioning. It is the step whereby the subject gradually learns the stimulus. At this initial stage, the stimulus is previously not even know to the subject.  A naturally occurring stimulus in the very first stage elicits some response from the subject. During this phase, there is an uncontrolled stimulus that yields an uncontrolled response. At this stage too, there is a neutral stimulus that yields and uncontrolled response in the subject also (Rehman, I. & Rehman, C., 2018). The subject does not need to learn in this first stage because they do not even know the meaning of the stimulus. In a conclusive way, the response at this stage is acquired. 

In the case of a child that is learning to speak, they do not require to understand the language that is being spoken. Whenever a person speaks, however, the child an uncontrolled stimulus of hearing will be generated by the child. To the child, speaking is the uncontrolled stimulus that unconditionally makes them yearn to listen. On the other hand, when the child sees a human being, they will expect them to speak and so they will be automatically listening. At this point, the child has acquired the response of hearing because of an unconditional stimulus which is speaking and the neutral stimulus which is the presence of a human being.

Extinction and recovery

The stage of extinction now happens when the conditioned response or the neutral response decreases. At this stage, the unconditioned stimulus appears alone. This stage proposes difficulties in learning because the subject will have to adapt to the unconditioned stimulus alone. They will be required to have such a hefty understanding of the unconditioned stimulus such that they will not require the neutral or conditioned stimulus to make a response (Henton & Iversen, 2012). Appearances of the conditioned stimulus which could be said be the recovery at this stage yield a stimulus too to the subject and hence the subject can be at this stage be said to be in the extinction ad recovery stage of learning. The appearance of either the unconditional stimulus alone, or the conditioned stimulus alone, or the conditioned and unconditioned and conditioned stimulus together all yield response at this stage.

In the case of a child learning to speak, the conditioned stimulus which is the presence of a human being will not need to be essential for the child to respond by listening. They will just need to hear the voice of a person speaking and then they respond by listening. For instance, the child, even when they are in a room, they will listen to the radio just because they can hear people speaking. The appearance of a human being in the room in person will also evoke their listening which means that the response of listening will still be evoked in the child regardless of whether it is the conditioned or unconditioned stimulus that appears.

Generalization and Discrimination

This is the third stage where the subject has understood a conditioned stimulus in the right yet manner. At this stage, the subject recognizes the conditioned stimulus.  They will, however, show some tendency to evoke the same response to something else that they may generalize as the conditioned stimulus. At this point, therefore, the response has been conditioned and can be directed to anything that looks like the conditioned stimulus (Gershman & Niv, 2012). However, after some time of leaning, the subject will be able to learn the difference between the conditioned stimuli and the other stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimuli. At this stage, the subject has acquired the ability to differentiate stimuli. They are therefore able to tell the difference between the conditioned stimulus and any other stimulus. 

A child who is in the process of learning to speak, for instance, will listen when they hear the sound of a vehicle, an animal or anything else that evokes a sound. Their response to listen could, therefore, be said to have been fuelled by the simple fact that they relate any sound to speaking. However, after some time, the child will learn to differentiate the sound of an animal and that of a human being and then, only the sound of a human being will evoke their listening.

Higher order conditioning

The higher order conditioning is the last stage in classical conditioning. In this stage, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. That is the neutral stimulus at this point is well learned and automatic response is made by the subject. The subject at this time appreciates that the neutral stimulus is as important as the conditioned stimulus. They understand that the neutral stimulus comes along with the conditioned stimulus and hence the very appearance of the neutral stimulus shows that the conditioned stimulus is on its way (Rehman, I. & Rehman, C., 2018). Therefore, the response the subject elicits is just essential as it would have been if there was a conditioned stimulus relayed. A child who is learning how to speak for instance will not need to hear a human speak to listen. By just seeing a human being, they will automatically listen because they know that the human will definitely speak.

In conclusion, Pavlov’s theory proposes four major steps which are inclusive of acquisition, extinction and recovery, generalization and discrimination and higher level conditioning. The processes are just instances, where the subject learns the conditional and unconditional and conditional stimuli and makes an unconditioned response. In acquisition, the subject needs the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli to elicit a response, in extinction and recovery, the subject evokes a response, whenever the conditioned stimulus is presented alone too. The third stage involves generalization and discrimination where the subject learns the difference between the unconditioned stimulus and any other stimulus. In the last stage, which is higher conditioning, the subject learns to make the neutral stimulus a conditioned stimulus that makes them evoke an unconditioned response even when a conditioned stimulus does not accompany the neutral stimulus.  

References

Gershman, S. J., & Niv, Y. (2012). Exploring a latent cause theory of classical conditioning. Learning & behavior, 40(3), 255-268.

Henton, W. W., & Iversen, I. H. (2012). Classical conditioning and operant conditioning: A response pattern analysis. Springer Science & Business Media.

Rehman, I., & Rehman, C. I. (2018). Classical Conditioning. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing.