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The essay is split into 2 parts section A title is critically discuss the benefits and limitations of research approaches used in medical imaging(1500 words) In this section you will need to talk about the importance of research in medical imaging ie( X-RAYS, MRI, Ultrasound and other medical modalities) and talk about how research has helped advance medical imaging you then need to talk about different types of research done using quantitative and qualitative methods ie ( purposive sampling for qulitative methods and randomised sampling for quantitative) you need to use a medical article as in example and use a lot of citations. try to use as much medical examples from articles comparing qualitative and quantive methods and talk about which ones the best method to use. you will need to talk about 1) data collection methods 2) methods of analysis 3) methods of sampling and recruitment part b title is critically discuss the benefits and limitations of audit approach used in medical imaging (1000 words) talk about why audit is relevant to diagnostic radiography practice. How its important to continuing professional development (CPD) how we use audits to improve patients care. use medical articles as examples for these. Talk about the difference between research and and audit.

Introduction to Qualitative
Research Approaches
Nicola Cook
18.10.2022
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
What is qualitative research?
 Non numerical data
 Empirical – originates from observation or experience
 Aims to study things in their natural setting – no form of
intervention involved
 Beneficial in healthcare service improvement
 Ranges from simple data collection to complex, deep and
meaningful insights
Features of qualitative research
 It involves naturally occurring data – people in their natural environment
 The approach is committed to understanding real world situations as they unfurl
from the point of view of the people who live in these worlds – eg people who
have experienced it (what is it like to travel in an aeroplane – need to have
travelled in an aeroplane)
 It is an inductive process – the researcher starts by collecting data and then
looking for patterns / drawing theories from it
 It is an iterative process – steps can be repeated, usually with improvements.
The topic can initially be approached broadly and then refined. It is an adaptive
and flexible approach, allowing new elements to be incorporated along the way
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Data collection methods
 Interviews – in-depth / semi-structured / group
 Observation – participant / direct / indirect
 Documents – reports / letters
 Questionnaires / surveys
Interviews
 In depth, semi-structured, group
 Social research data collection method
 Used to explore and probe complex issues
 Needs some structure
 Content needs to be considered closely to ensure logical and useful responses
 Weighting towards the interviewee in terms of dialogue
 Focus groups are a less structured type of interview – discussing a specific set of
topics
Observation
 Preferred method in case studies or action research
 Often used to supplement another method, eg questionnaire
 Useful when the phenomenon is unfamiliar eg observing individuals living in a
remote and enclosed location
 Non verbal behaviour is captured
 Participants do not have to do anything, just act as they usually would
Documents, reports, letters
 Hospital records, photographs, diaries,
 requires repeated review, examination, and interpretation of the data in order
to gain meaning
 Can be used in triangulation with other data collection methods, eg interviews or
observations
Questionnaires / surveys
 Can be easy to administer eg online
 Useful for a wider / larger population
 Many types of questionnaires – different structure, styles
 Open, closed and semi structured questions
 Questions need to be considered carefully
 Can have reliability and validity issues
Activity time ☺ In groups of 2s or 3s consider which data collection
method you would use, with reasons, for the following research questions:
 ‘Exploring the confidence of third
year radiography students on the
selection and manipulating of
exposure factors in a variety of
settings.’
 ‘Factors influencing paediatric
distress in the x-ray department’
 ‘Radiography students’ attitudes and
perceptions of the elderly’
 ‘Investigating anxiety following an
abnormal mammogram’
Data collection methods
 Interviews – in-depth / semi-structured / group
 Observation – participant / direct / indirect
 Documents – reports / letters
 Questionnaires / surveys
Sampling in qualitative research
 Aim is to generate a sample which allows understanding of the topic of interest
 Techniques – purposeful / snowballing / convenience
 Looking for those who have enough knowledge to answer the question
 Snowballing – through a network of people who have that knowledge about what
I want
 Those readily available
 Sample size not fixed – but enough to answer the question, until new themes and
categories stop emerging
 Depends on time and resources
 Until saturation reached
Data analysis methods
 Intensive in qualitative research compared to quantitative research
 Thematic analysis
 Content analysis
 Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software
Activity ☺☺
 On a post it note, write down 1 phrase or word to answer the following question
What was the best part of your weekend?
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Qualitative research approaches
Phenomenological
Ethnographic
Grounded theory
Historical
Case study
Action research
Phenomenological
 This research approach focuses on the lived experiences, beliefs and perceptions
of the participants
 If I want to learn about what it is like to be a radiographer then I study
radiographers, interview them, have focus groups, I see and hear what they do
and make an understanding from this
 For example, exploring the lived experiences of women undergoing breast
biopsy or the lived experiences of family members waiting for a loved one
undergoing major surgery
 One of the most commonly used methodologies in qualitative research
Ethnographic
Grounded theory
 Research on a group of people and
their behaviours and social
interactions within their own, native
environment
 The generation of theory which is
‘grounded’ in data that has been
systematically collected and
analysed.
 Finding out what goes on in social
and cultural groups
 An example would be investigating
student radiographers perception of
dose creep – students are already
aware of the concept of dose creep
– the data is collected based on this
assumed knowledge – the theory
 Anthropology and sociology based
 An example would be observing
medical personnel in a busy hospital
setting – the medical personnel are
the group
Historical
Case study
 Used to describe past events and
developments in order to better
understand the present and
anticipate potential effects on the
future
 Detailed study of a specific subject
in its real world context
 An example would be ‘what caused
an outbreak of polio in the past
that may contribute to the
outbreaks of today?’
 Detailed and intensive analysis of a
specific event
 Relies on multiple data sources for
evidence
 An example would be a refugee
group resulting from a political
conflict – the group is the case
Action research
 Action research is widely used in healthcare to investigate professional practice
and patients’ experience while simultaneously:
 – introducing innovations
 – planning, actioning and evaluating new ideas
 – seeking to improve patient care
 – working collaboratively.
 Can be used to address operational problems, eg waiting times in Ultrasound
The research question
 Succinct and thought provoking
 Provides the researcher with explicit aims and targets to
work towards
 Non-specific questions risk losing focus, confusing readers
and have no benefit
 Subject / topic – something that the researcher has a
background interest in
Ethical considerations
 Autonomy – anonymity, consent, full disclosure, right to
withdraw, confidentiality
 Beneficence – ensuring that the results of the study will be
used to make improvements / do good / be beneficial
 Non-maleficence – not causing physical or mental harm to
participants
 Justice – fairness and equality to all participants
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Strengths of qualitative research
 Rich data
 Seeks to understand rather than explain
 Investigates complex issues
 Can include unusual details
 Generates new ideas for further research
Weaknesses of qualitative research
 Small sample size (relative)
 Time consuming data collection and analysis
 Subjective – possible bias
 Dependent on researcher skills
 Findings cannot be generalised – eg cannot compare radiography study with
nursing study
How do we determine quality in
qualitative research studies?
 Dependability – can the findings be replicated
 Confirmability – can the researcher demonstrate that the views represent the
studied group?
 Transferability – can the findings be applied to other settings and groups?
 Credibility – is the data true and do they reflect the views of the studied group?
Has the data been interpreted correctly?
 Authenticity – can readers understand the feelings and emotions of the study
participants?
 Triangulation as a checking method
Aims of the unit
students should be able to
Understand
Understand the principles of qualitative research and
recognise when a qualitative approach has been undertaken
by a researcher
Identify
Identify methodologies associated with qualitative research
Understand
Understand the principles of research methods adopting a
qualitative approach
Comment on
Comment on the strengths and weaknesses qualitative
research
Develop
Further develop their knowledge of the common terminology
used in research – focusing on qualitative research terms
Qualitative research terminology
 See document on Canvas unit
WRITING WORKSHOP
Olan Lawal & Louise Hadley
Session objectives
• Develop your understanding of the essay titles
• Consider the plan or structure to use for your assignment
• Know what to include the in introduction and summary sections
• Know where to find relevant articles to support the assignment
2
Assignment titles
A. Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of research approaches used in
medical imaging. (1500 words)
B. Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of the audit approach used in
medical imaging. (1000 words)
3
Breaking down the Part A title- the focus of the assignment
• Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of research approaches used in
medical imaging.
• You should cover the advantages and disadvantages of the quantitative and
qualitative research methods.
• The example(s) you include after you have discussed the advantages and
disadvantages of the methods should be in medical imaging.
4
The critical discussion should include the following
•
Data collection methods
•
Methods of analysis
•
Methods of sampling and recruitment
•
Consideration of quality, best practice, and ethics
How you could present this information in your essay.
5
Structing Part A
• Introduction 100 words
• Discussion
o Methods of sampling and recruitment 400 words
▪ Discuss the benefits and limitations of the quantitative and qualitative
methods of sampling.
▪ Include an example of an article in diagnostic radiography that has used
a method of sampling you have discussed.
o Data collection methods 500 words
▪ Same format as above
o Methods of analysis 400 words
▪ Same format as above
• Summary 100 words
6
An example text
The benefits and limitations of purposive sampling used in the qualitative approach Vs
randomised sampling used in the quantitative research approach could be discussed.
Ref A conducted a quantitative study on the effectiveness of mild sedation in helping
claustrophobic patients complete their magnetic resonance imaging examinations. The
authors have randomly allocated participants in the intervention and control groups,
thus reducing the risk of selection bias in the study (Ref B). However, the study reported
a single-blinding technique was used to assign the participant to the group that received
the mild sedation and the group that had the placebo. They could have used a doubleblinding method instead, as there is a tendency that the participants might sense which
group they were assigned to from the actions of the researcher (Ref C). Consequently,
the participants might start behaving in the way they feel would be appropriate, which
might affect the study’s outcome. Studies that use the quantitative approach should
endeavour to use a rigorous research process to improve the credibility of their findings.
7
Another example
Interviews can be a good way to gain understanding of individual patient
experiences (Ref A). As ref B argues, they can capture detail and nuances by
recording the experiences in the participants own voice, and allowing
clarification of points made, through follow up questions. For example, in the
research by X, interviews allowed the researchers to fully appreciate …. . This
insight, led the researchers to be able to … It seems unlikely this understanding
could have been captured, had a quantitative data collection method been
used. However, there are criticisms of interviews ….. (ref C)
Whatever your structure – ensure you:
• Logically progress the argument
• Avoid jumping from one topic to the
other
• Use sub-headings to guide the
reader
• Avoid repetition
Adapted from Essay Writing: The Basics, University of New South Wales
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/essay3.html
Breaking down the Part B title
• Critically discuss the benefits and limitations of the audit approach used in
medical imaging.
• Your discussion should cover the advantages and disadvantages of the audit
approach in comparison with the research approach used in medical imaging.
• The example(s) you include after you have discussed the advantages and
disadvantages of the methods should be in medical imaging.
10
Structing writing Part B
• Introduction 100 words
• Discussion
o Methods of sampling and recruitment 300 words
▪ Discuss the benefits and limitations of the sampling method audit
approach in comparison with research approach.
▪ Include an example of an article in diagnostic radiography that has used
a method of sampling you have discussed.
o Data collection methods 300 words
o Methods of analysis 200 words
• Summary 100 words
11
Introduction section
• Defines the main issues- Why is research/audit relevant to diagnostic radiography
practice? The professional regulatory body recommendation regarding continuing
professional development (CPD). How do radiographers use the knowledge of the
benefits and limitations of research/audit to improve practice or patients’
experience? Etc.
• State the purpose or aims of the essay concisely
• Prepares the reader ☺
• References appropriate and recent literature.
Body section
• This is where most of the marks will come from
• Will need to demonstrate knowledge and understanding in relation to the
learning outcomes of the module
• It should be structured to aid the flow
• Should demonstrate critical thinking
• Your essay plan will decide what will be discussed in which order …
Summary/conclusion section
A good summary:
• This should summarise the key
information from the body/discussion of
the essay. No new information should be
introduced in this section, so you do not
require citations to support the
information.
• Pick up on the theme given in the
introduction – reflect on this in light of
the discussion given in the body section –
have you achieved the aim set?
• Suggest wider implications if appropriate.
Paragraphs – good practice
• Aims for 5-8 sentences
• Topic sentence (first sentence) sets the scene for the paragraph stating the main idea/
argument of that paragraph.
• Within the paragraph
o Present your viewpoints and/or statements clearly
o Add a definition or explanation of any new terms used in the statements
o Then critically analyse the idea giving a short but succinct breakdown of the positives
and negatives of that point – this will come from your reading of the topic area.
o Then add evidence, i.e. assertions or statistics from literature sources, to justify that
idea.
o Reference the assertions used according to the HSK referencing guidelines.
Paragraphs – good practice
cont.
• All ideas are internally cohesive but externally different
• Paragraphs must be linked like a proverbial thread that is woven from one
paragraph to another. This gives your writing cohesion and flow…think of a river.
This is what your marker likes to read = good marks!
Paragraph structure – consider use of PEEL
Point – start with clear topic sentence
Evidence– support point with evidence or examples. For example, facts,
research findings or paraphrase from credible authority or text book.
Explain – show understating by explaining in more detail how and why the
evidence supports point. Your explanation should interpret the evidence for the
reader.
Link- link to initial point – reinforcing it or link to next paragraph – connects the
paragraph to the rest of the essay and allows paragraph to feel finished
Note: there are other structure aids out there, you may use, but they all need a topic sentence and focus!
For example
Ref A conducted a quantitative study on the effectiveness of mild sedation in helping
claustrophobic patients complete their magnetic resonance imaging examinations.
The authors have randomly allocated participants in the intervention and control
groups, thus reducing the risk of selection bias in the study (Ref B). However, the
study reported a single-blinding technique was used to assign the participant to the
group that received the mild sedation and the group that had the placebo. They could
have used a double-blinding method instead, as there is a tendency that the
participants might sense which group they were assigned to from the actions of the
researcher (Ref C). Consequently, the participants might start behaving in the way
they feel would be appropriate, which might affect the study’s outcome. Studies that
use the quantitative approach should endeavour to use a rigorous research process to
improve the reproducibility of their findings.
18
Source of evidence
• Books
• Methodology-based articles- examples Twycross & Shorten (2014); Raskind et al. (2019)
• Diagnostic radiography-based articles for your examples. The three most popular journals in
radiography
1.
Radiography Journal
2.
Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Science
3.
Journal of Medical Radiation Science
• It would be best if you aimed to have 1% of the total word count of your assignment for your
number of references. This means that in a 2,500 words essay, you should include about 25
references.
19
Other Information
• Be written in an acceptable academic style, which is clear and concise
• Use appropriate academic language
• Be structured logically
• Be word processed and 1.5 line spacing using a standard font size of 11 or 12
and acceptable font (Arial or Calibri).
20
Common Errors to Avoid in your Essay
• Avoid long sentences. You should consider breaking it into two sentences if it
is over three rows.
• Define all abbreviations when they are first used in the assignments.
• Avoid using direct quotes – paraphrase information and cite the source.
• Ensure you adhere to the School of Health and Social Work Referencing
Guidelines.
• Use relevant citations to support your arguments and ensure you include all
the article cited in your work in the reference list.
21
Common Errors to Avoid in your Essay
• Use subheadings to structure the discussion.
• Proofread your essay to identify grammatical or spelling errors.
• Do not use contractions. Examples- aren’t, can’t, don’t, couldn’t, wasn’t,
didn’t, etc.
• Check that your discussions/arguments are correct. Do not mistakenly write
qualitative when you mean quantitative.
• Write in the third person- e.g. he, she, him, her, himself, herself, it, they,
them, their, themselves.
Do not use first and second-person pronouns. e.g. I, we, us, our, me, my, mine, myself, you,
your, yourself.
22
Example of
critical
writing
On canvas – academic skills advice site, there are
examples of writing at different levels http://academicskills.health.herts.ac.uk/academic-writingexplained/
Excerpt from level 5 writing http://academicskills.health.herts.ac.uk/wpcontent/uploads/2018/11/Example-of-level-5writing-4.pdf
Reference list
Raskind, I. G., Shelton, R. C., Comeau, D. L., Cooper, H. L., Griffith, D. M., &
Kegler, M. C. (2019). A review of qualitative data analysis practices in health
education and health behavior research. Health Education & Behavior, 46(1),
32-39.
Twycross, A., & Shorten, A. (2014). Service evaluation, audit and research: what
is the difference?. Evidence-based nursing, 17(3), 65-66.
24
Critically Discuss the Benefits and Limitations of Research Approaches Used in Medical
Imaging
Introduction
Research plays a vital role in the advancement of various modalities in medical
imaging.
It provides evidence useful when changing practice and it is therefore a key aspect of CPD.
HCPC has set a standard that dictates that radiographers require to be in constant engagement
in evidence-based practice and should be in a position to evaluate research. With this,
radiographers can keep up with the advancements that come about in practice, proving that
research is vital in ensuring that the best patient care is delivered. The medical field has
experienced changes which demand high-quality research. When medics prioritize research
in medical imaging, patient care and satisfaction improve, training for healthcare professions
is enhanced and the use of radiation improves in terms of quality and safety.